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Nathan Appanna Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, Oxfordshire, UK

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Hylton Gibson Department of Biochemistry, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa

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Elena Gangitano Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, Oxfordshire, UK
Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Lazio, Italy

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Niall J Dempster Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, Oxfordshire, UK

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Karen Morris Biochemistry Department, Manchester University NHS Trust, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, Greater Manchester, UK

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Sherly George Biochemistry Department, Manchester University NHS Trust, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, Greater Manchester, UK

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Anastasia Arvaniti Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, Oxfordshire, UK
Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, Oxfordshire, UK

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Laura L Gathercole Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, Oxfordshire, UK
Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, Oxfordshire, UK

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Brian Keevil Biochemistry Department, Manchester University NHS Trust, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, Greater Manchester, UK

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Trevor M Penning Center of Excellence in Environmental Toxicology and Department of Systems Pharmacology & Translational Therapeutics, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA

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Karl-Heinz Storbeck Department of Biochemistry, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa

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Jeremy W Tomlinson Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, Oxfordshire, UK

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Nikolaos Nikolaou Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, Oxfordshire, UK

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-002 metabolises endogenous glucocorticoids, including cortisol and cortisone, to their 5β-reduced metabolites, 5β-dihydrocortisol and 5β-dihydrocortisone, respectively. The 5β-reduced metabolites are then converted, in a non-rate limiting step, to their inactive

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Marc Simard Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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Caroline Underhill Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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Geoffrey L Hammond Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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thought to promote the delivery of cortisol to sites of inflammation ( Hammond et al . 1990 , Lin et al . 2009 ). A metalloprotease (LasB), secreted by the pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa, may also contribute to the localized release of cortisol from

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Robin Haring Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Department of Pharmacology, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine

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Henri Wallaschofski Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Department of Pharmacology, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine

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Alexander Teumer Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Department of Pharmacology, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine

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Heyo Kroemer Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Department of Pharmacology, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine

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Angela E Taylor Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Department of Pharmacology, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine

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Cedric H L Shackleton Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Department of Pharmacology, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine

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Matthias Nauck Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Department of Pharmacology, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine

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Uwe Völker Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Department of Pharmacology, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine

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Georg Homuth Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Department of Pharmacology, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine

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Wiebke Arlt Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Department of Pharmacology, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine

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employed for the measurement of DHEA and androstenedione and carried out in positive mode, whereas DHEAS measurement was performed in negative mode. DHEA, androstenedione, cortisol, and cortisone were extracted from 150 μl serum via liquid–liquid extraction

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Emma J Agnew University/BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, The Queen’s Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh, UK

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Jessica R Ivy University/BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, The Queen’s Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh, UK

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Sarah J Stock MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, University of Edinburgh, The Queen’s Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh, UK

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Karen E Chapman University/BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, The Queen’s Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh, UK

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the use of ACT during pregnancy. Endogenous glucocorticoids and fetal maturation The adrenal gland is the site of synthesis and release of corticosteroid hormones: mineralocorticoids and the glucocorticoids, cortisol and corticosterone

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Irit Hochberg Institute of Endocrinology, Life Science Institute, Physiology, Preventive Medicine, Internal Medicine, Neurosurgery, Pediatrics, Diabetes and Metabolism, Rambam Health Care Campus, Haifa, Israel
Institute of Endocrinology, Life Science Institute, Physiology, Preventive Medicine, Internal Medicine, Neurosurgery, Pediatrics, Diabetes and Metabolism, Rambam Health Care Campus, Haifa, Israel

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Innocence Harvey Institute of Endocrinology, Life Science Institute, Physiology, Preventive Medicine, Internal Medicine, Neurosurgery, Pediatrics, Diabetes and Metabolism, Rambam Health Care Campus, Haifa, Israel

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Quynh T Tran Institute of Endocrinology, Life Science Institute, Physiology, Preventive Medicine, Internal Medicine, Neurosurgery, Pediatrics, Diabetes and Metabolism, Rambam Health Care Campus, Haifa, Israel

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Erin J Stephenson Institute of Endocrinology, Life Science Institute, Physiology, Preventive Medicine, Internal Medicine, Neurosurgery, Pediatrics, Diabetes and Metabolism, Rambam Health Care Campus, Haifa, Israel

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Ariel L Barkan Institute of Endocrinology, Life Science Institute, Physiology, Preventive Medicine, Internal Medicine, Neurosurgery, Pediatrics, Diabetes and Metabolism, Rambam Health Care Campus, Haifa, Israel

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Alan R Saltiel Institute of Endocrinology, Life Science Institute, Physiology, Preventive Medicine, Internal Medicine, Neurosurgery, Pediatrics, Diabetes and Metabolism, Rambam Health Care Campus, Haifa, Israel

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William F Chandler Institute of Endocrinology, Life Science Institute, Physiology, Preventive Medicine, Internal Medicine, Neurosurgery, Pediatrics, Diabetes and Metabolism, Rambam Health Care Campus, Haifa, Israel

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Dave Bridges Institute of Endocrinology, Life Science Institute, Physiology, Preventive Medicine, Internal Medicine, Neurosurgery, Pediatrics, Diabetes and Metabolism, Rambam Health Care Campus, Haifa, Israel
Institute of Endocrinology, Life Science Institute, Physiology, Preventive Medicine, Internal Medicine, Neurosurgery, Pediatrics, Diabetes and Metabolism, Rambam Health Care Campus, Haifa, Israel
Institute of Endocrinology, Life Science Institute, Physiology, Preventive Medicine, Internal Medicine, Neurosurgery, Pediatrics, Diabetes and Metabolism, Rambam Health Care Campus, Haifa, Israel

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Introduction Cushing's disease, or persistently high circulating levels of cortisol secondary to a pituitary adenoma, leads to significant truncal obesity and diabetes ( Cushing 1932 ). Obesity and diabetes are major factors in morbidity and

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Gillian A Gray University/BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

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Christopher I White University/BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

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Raphael F P Castellan University/BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

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Sara J McSweeney University/BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

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Karen E Chapman University/BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

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Introduction The major physiological adrenocorticosteroid hor­mones, glucocorticoids (cortisol in most animals and corticosterone in rats and mice) and mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) are vital for normal cardiovascular function. They

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Simak Ali Department of Surgery & Cancer, Imperial College London, London, UK

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Kirsty Balachandran Department of Surgery & Cancer, Imperial College London, London, UK

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Bert O’Malley Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA

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biosynthesis of aldosterone, cortisol, estradiol and testosterone. Over the years, steroidogenic enzymes and regulatory proteins have been identified and further annotated our knowledge of this pathway. The inextricable association between progesterone

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Guanghong Jia Department of Medicine-Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, Missouri, USA
Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA

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Michael A Hill Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA
Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, Missouri, USA

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James R Sowers Department of Medicine-Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, Missouri, USA
Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA
Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, Missouri, USA

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) in ECs ( Fig. 1 ) ( Jia et al. 2021 ). Meanwhile, MR activity is also regulated by cortisol. In tissues lacking 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase-2 such as adipose tissue, cortisol is typically the primary ligand for the MR since blood concentrations

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Yasmine Hachemi Institute of Comparative Molecular Endocrinology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany

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Anna E Rapp Institute of Orthopaedic Research and Biomechanics, Ulm University Medical Centre, Ulm, Germany

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Ann-Kristin Picke Institute of Comparative Molecular Endocrinology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany

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Gilbert Weidinger Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany

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Anita Ignatius Institute of Orthopaedic Research and Biomechanics, Ulm University Medical Centre, Ulm, Germany

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Jan Tuckermann Institute of Comparative Molecular Endocrinology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany

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(CRF), which in turn acts on the pituitary, stimulating its release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH acts on the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex for the release of GCs, which belong to the steroid class of hormones. Cortisol as the

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Eugenia Mata-Greenwood Divisions of Pharmacology and Physiology, Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine, Center for Perinatal Biology, Medical Center, Loma Linda University, Room A572, 11234 Anderson Street, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA

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P Naomi Jackson Divisions of Pharmacology and Physiology, Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine, Center for Perinatal Biology, Medical Center, Loma Linda University, Room A572, 11234 Anderson Street, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA

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William J Pearce Divisions of Pharmacology and Physiology, Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine, Center for Perinatal Biology, Medical Center, Loma Linda University, Room A572, 11234 Anderson Street, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA

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Lubo Zhang Divisions of Pharmacology and Physiology, Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine, Center for Perinatal Biology, Medical Center, Loma Linda University, Room A572, 11234 Anderson Street, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA

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revealed significant human variability in response to both endogenous (cortisol) and synthetic glucocorticoids ( Ito et al . 2006 , Kino 2007 ), but the mechanisms remain undetermined. Glucocorticoids mediate their biological effects by the ubiquitously

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